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谬误
谬误—论点中的错误—要么规避论点中的问题，要么认为论点要比实际简单得多。
规避
有效的论点直面核心事物或问题。无效的论点用以下的方式躲避问题：
■ 回避问题：将值得质疑的观点视为人们赞同或反对的观点。从本质上说，作者恳求读者从一开始就接受他或她的主张。
The college library’s expenses should be reduced by cutting subscriptions to useless periodicals.［回避的问题：Are some of the library’s periodicals useless? Useless to whom?］
The fact is that political financing is too corrupt to be reformed.［回避的问题：How corrupt is political financing? Does corruption, even if extensive, put the system beyond reform?］
■ 不合逻辑的推论：将两个或多个事实上没有逻辑关系的观点联系在一起。通常，问题是联系观点的未明确说明的假设，但却是错误的。
She uses a wheelchair, so she must be unhappy.［未阐明的假设：People who use wheelchairs are unhappy.］
Kathleen Newsome has my vote for mayor because she has the best-run campaign organization.［未阐明的假设：A good campaign organization meansthat the candidate is well qualified for the job.］
■ 红鲱鱼：引入会干扰读者对相关问题注意力的无关事物。（红鲱鱼是一种用来干扰狗的嗅觉的鱼）
A campus speech code is essential to protect students, who already have enough problems coping with rising tuition. [Tuition costs and speech codes are different subjects. What protections do students need that a speech code will provide?]
Instead of developing a campus speech code that will infringe on students’ First Amendment rights, administrators should be figuring out how to prevent another tuition increase. [Again, tuition costs and speech codes are different subjects. How would the code infringe on rights?]
■假权威：将专业知识值得怀疑或没有专业知识的人视作专家。
Jason Bing, a recognized expert in corporate finance, maintains that pharmaceutical companies do not test their products thoroughly enough. [Bing’s expertise in corporate finance bears no apparent relation to the testing of pharmaceuticals.]
According to Helen Liebowitz, the Food and Drug Administration has approved sixty dangerous drugs in the last two years alone. [Who is Helen Liebowitz? On what authority does she make this claim?]
■激起读者的恐惧或怜悯：用情感代替推理。
By electing Susan Clark to the city council, you will prevent the city’s economic collapse. [Trades on people’s fears. Can Clark single-handedly prevent economic collapse? Is collapse even likely?]
She should not have to pay taxes because she is an aged widow with no friends or relatives. [Appeals to people’s pity. Should age and loneliness, rather than income, determine a person’s tax obligation?]
■讲究派头的诉求：让读者接受某个主张，以便让其能等同于读者钦佩的人。
Angelina Jolie has an account at Big City Bank, and so should you. [A celebrity’s endorsement does not guarantee the worth of a product, a service, an idea, or anything else.]
■ 潮流：让读者接受一个大家都接受的主张。
As everyone knows, marijuana use leads to heroin addiction. [What is the evidence?]
■ 诉诸群情：让读者接受一个基于共同价值或者甚至是偏见的结论。
Any truly patriotic American will support the President’s action. [But why is the action worth taking?]
■ 人身攻击：攻击持对立观点的人的品质而不是观点本身。
One of the scientists has been treated for emotional problems, so his pessimism about nuclear waste merits no attention. [Do the scientist’s previous emotional problems invalidate his current views?]
过于简单化
在劳而无功地试图创建完全令人信服的事情时，无效的观点可能用以下的方式掩盖或忽视问题的复杂性：
■ 仓促归纳：在证据不足的情况下得出主张。
It is disturbing that several of the youths who shot up schools were users of violent video games. Obviously, these games can breed violence, and they should be banned. [A few cases do not establish the relation between the games and violent behavior. Most youths who play violent video games do not behave violently.]
From the way it handled this complaint, we can assume that the consumer protection office has little intention of protecting consumers. [One experience with the office does not demonstrate its intention or overall performance.]
■ 笼统归纳：得出没有根据的论点。有些笼统归纳是绝对陈述，使用了诸如all，always，never和no one等具有绝对含义的词。有些是刻板印象，即对某一群体的传统而过于简化的性格描述。
People who live in cities are unfriendly.
Californians are fad-crazy.
Women are emotional.
Men can’t express their feelings.
（见pp. 167–170性别歧视和其他歧视语言）
■简化了的谬误：简化因果关系（使因果关系变弱）。
Poverty causes crime. [If so, then why do people who are not poor commit crimes? And why aren’t all poor people criminals?]
The better a school’s athletic facilities are, the worse its academic programs are. [The sentence assumes a direct cause-and-effect link between athletics and scholarship.]
■事后归因谬误：认为因为A在B之前，所以A一定引起B。
In the two months since he took office, Mayor Holcomb has allowed crime in the city to increase 12%. [The increase in crime is probably attributable to conditions existing before Holcomb took office.]
The town council erred in permitting the adult bookstore to open, for shortly afterward two women were assaulted. [It cannot be assumed without evidence that the women’s assailants visited or were influenced by the bookstore.]
■非此即彼的谬误：认为复杂的问题只有一个好的和一个坏的答案、两个好的答案或两个坏的答案。
City police officers are either brutal or corrupt. [Most city police officers are neither.]
Either we permit mandatory drug testing in the workplace or productivity will continue to decline. [Productivity is not necessarily dependent on drug testing.]
■错误的类比：认为因为两个事物在某个方面相似，所以它们在其他方面也一定相似。当相似之处是合理时，类比在论述文中非常有用。例如，“禁毒之战”将与敌人的战争和根除（或至少减少）非法毒品的销售及使用相提并论：两个都涉及敌人、预期目标、身穿制服的官员和其他特征。但是，下面文章中的类比错误到了极致：
To win the war on drugs, we must wage more of a military-style operation. Prisoners of war are locked up without the benefit of a trial by jury, and drug dealers should be, too. Soldiers shoot their enemy on sight, and officials who encounter big drug operators should be allowed to shoot them, too. Military traitors may be executed, and corrupt law enforcers could be, too.
练习12.6 辨别并修改谬误
找出下列每句话中至少一个谬误，然后修改句子，使其更合理。带星号部分的参考答案请见书后。
*1. A successful marriage demands a maturity that no one under twenty-five possesses.
*2. Students’ persistent complaints about the grading system prove that it is unfair.
*3. The United States got involved in World War II because the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.
*4. People watch television because they are too lazy to talk or read or because they want mindless escape from their lives.
*5. Racial tension is bound to occur when people with different backgrounds are forced to live side by side.
6. Emerging nations should not be allowed to use nuclear technology for creating energy because eventually they will use it to wage war.
7. Mountain climbing has more lasting effects than many people think: my cousin blacked out three times after he climbed Pikes Peak.
8. Failing to promote democracy throughout the Middle East will lose the region forever to American influence.
9. She admits to being an atheist, so how could she be a good philosophy teacher?
10. Teenagers are too young to be encouraged to use contraceptives.
简明目录
前言 致学生 ／iii
前言 致老师 ／v
第一部分 写作过程 001
第1章 写作情境 003
第2章 创作 011
第3章 主题和组织 017
第4章 打草稿 028
第5章 修改 032
第6章 校订、定格式和校对 039
第7章 段落 046
第8章 提交终稿 071
第二部分 大学内外的写作 085
第9章 加入学术圈 087
第10章 批判性思维与阅读 092
第11章 学术写作 108
第12章 撰写论述文 120
第13章 文学阅读与写作 140
第14章 大众写作 146
第三部分 明晰与风格 155
第15章 强调 157
第16章 平行结构 167
第17章 变化与细节 171
第18章 恰当而准确的用词 175
第19章 完整 194
第20章 简明 195
第四部分 第四部分句子成分和句型 203
基本语法 ／ 205
第21章 词性 205
第22章 句子 213
第23章 短语和从句 221
第24章 句子类型 228
动词 ／ 230
第25章 动词的词形 230
第26章 动词时态 246
第27章 动词语气 254
第28章 动词的语态 256
第29章 主谓一致 259
代词 ／ 267
第30章 代词的格 267
第31章 代词和先行词的一致 274
第32章 代词对先行词的指向 278
修饰语 ／ 283
第33章 形容词和副词 283
第34章 错置修饰语和垂悬修饰语 295
句子中的错误 ／ 302
第35章 残缺句 302
第36章 逗号拼接句和融合句 307
第37章 杂糅句（混合句） 314
第五部分 标点符号 319
第38章 句末标点 321
第39章 逗号 323
第40章 分号 339
第41章 冒号 343
第42章 撇号 346
第43章 引号 352
第44章 其他标点 356
第六部分 拼写和文字处理细节 363
第45章 拼写 365
第46章 连字符 371
第47章 大写字母 373
第48章 斜体或下画线 377
第49章 缩略语 381
第50章 数字 384
第七部分 研究和文献记录 389
第51章 研究策略 391
第52章 寻找原始资料 399
第53章 处理原始资料 417
第54章 抄袭的避免和原始资料的引用 445
第55章 撰写论文 454
第56章 MLA原始资料来源的标注与格式 457
第57章 APA原始资料来源的标注与格式 516
词语用法汇编 ／543
带星号练习题答案 ／558
索引 ／573
语言文化提示 ／613
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